The three-dimensional structure of fronts in mid-latitude weather systems in numerical weather prediction models

Abstract. Atmospheric fronts are a widely used conceptual model in meteorology, most encountered as two-dimensional (2-D) front lines on surface analysis charts. The three-dimensional (3-D) dynamical structure of has been studied the literature by means “standard” 2-D maps and cross-sections is commonly sketched 3-D illustrations idealized weather systems atmospheric science textbooks. However, only recently feasibility objective detection visual frontal structures their dynamics within numerical prediction (NWP) data proposed, such approaches not yet known community. In this article, we investigate benefit for case studies extra-tropical cyclones comparison between different NWP models. We build recent gradient-based approach, combined with modern interactive techniques, adapt it to handle from state-of-the-art models including those run at convection-permitting kilometre-scale resolution. parameters method (including smoothing threshold parameters) evaluated yield physically meaningful structures. illustrate presenting two mid-latitude cyclones. Examples include joint warm conveyor belt (WCB) trajectories, well identification characterizing stages Shapiro–Keyser cyclogenesis event. show agreement charts augment providing additional pertinent information vertical dimension. A second application illustrates relation convection cold-front comparing simulations parameterized explicit convection. Finally, consider “secondary fronts” that appear UK Met Office Examination study shows event secondary temperature-dominated but humidity-dominated feature. argue presented approach great potential be beneficial more complex operational forecasting.